Smoking and Urinary Bladder Carcinoma

Smoking and Urinary Bladder Carcinoma Abstract Method : Literature review Background : Urinary bladder carcinoma is one of the most prevalent tumors woldwide  and smoking is one of its major risk factor ,hence studying the relationship between smoking and urinary bladder carcinoma is of great importance Results : Relationship between smoking and urinary bladder carcinoma is not clear although recent studies has shown that it might be related to the VEGF , apoptosis , urinary ph and causes mutation in the DNA. There is equal risk between males and femlesin relation to urinary bladder carcinoma related smoking. Results have shown that the risk of smoking is more apparent in the current smokers than non smokers and water pipe smoking has a borderline risk. Conclusion: Smoking is a major risk factor in urinary bladder carcinoma with equal risk in males and females , cessation of smoking decreases the risk to almost normal keywords : Smoking, urinary bladder carcinoma , risk factor , pathogenesis Methodology literature review made by searching PubMed with following restrictions: 5 years , humans , free full article and English Background Urinary bladder carcinoma is one of the most prevalent cancers worldwide, the seventh most common .In North America and Europe is considered the eleventh most common cancer (3), in Egypt it is the most common malignancy in males.(6) Therefore studying the risk factors for Urinary bladder carcinoma is important to decrease the prevalence and incidence, risk factors include Bilhariziasis, aniline dye. Smoking is considered one of the major risk factors for urinary bladder carcinoma . Results Although the exact relationship between smoking and urinary bladder carcinoma is still unclear, smoking is one of the major and important risk factors for developing of urinary bladder carcinoma. Tobacco smoking contain a lot of the carcinogenic agents like poly cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aromatic amines, substances that are excreted by the kidney, known to be harmful to the urinary tract, and cause bladder cancer secondary to genetic damage. Studies have shown that smoking increases the risk to get bladder carcinoma by 6 times and it is responsible for 50 % of bladder carcinoma , it is more prevalent in developing countries due to the diffuse spread of this ugly habit, the easiness of getting it and the laxity of the governments to fight it . (3) After filtering of these carcinogenic gents through the urinary tract, it is stored into the urinary bladder which damages its lining epithelium and make transitional cell mutation. Tobacco smoking is considered as the initiator for the carcinogenesis. Many proteins are showen to be a part of the angiogenesis process in the developing of carcinoma likeP53 and VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) which showed to be the main one in this process by increasing the vascular permeability and inducing endothelial cell migration, So the VEGF helps in the progression of the cancer, studies have shown that the degree of severity of bladder carcinoma is directly related to degree of expression of the VEGF. (4) Studies have shown that apoptosis has higher effect in urinary bladder carcinoma related to smoking more than VEGF, apoptosis is mainly under control of P53 gene which is found to be highly mutated in urinary bladder carcinoma.(4) Cigarette smoking increases the acidity of urine which causes compounds like Glucuronide conjugates of 4-aminobiphenyl and its N-hydroxy metabolite to be hydrolyzed, and this causes DNA damage and mutation .(1) A recent study has shown that urine ph is not a good indicator in ex_smokers or non smokers ,while urine ph is strongly related to bladder carcinoma in current smokers , experimentally not proven by studies yet that changing urine ph that decrease the hazardous affect of smoking related to bladder carcinoma (1) Studies showed that cigarette smoking increases the prevalence of urothelial carcinoma to 77% and sqamaeous cell carcinoma to 69% among men. Also those studies showed that the number of cigarettes smoked per day and risk of urothelial carcinoma, between years smoked and risk of urothelial carcinoma, and between pack-years and risk of urothelial carcinoma were observed. On the other hand former cigarette smokers have no relation between the number of cigarettes smoked per day and risk of urothelial carcinoma, between years smoked and risk of urothelial carcinoma, and between pack-years and risk of urothelial carcinoma. Researches have shown that those who are smoking water pipe have borderline relationship to the urothelial carcinoma but not with the sqamaseous cell carcinoma. There was no dose-relationship between risk of urothelial carcinoma and number of hagars smoked per day, duration of smoking, or Hagar-year. Patients who have schistosomiasis and smoke have no additional risk for urinary bladder carcinoma.(2) A study has been made in New England shown equal risk for urinary bladder carcinoma between men and woman. it also shown that pack per year and intensity of smoking have reached the plateau according to the risk but not the duration of smoking, this plateau has been observed in many cancer related smoking . Smoking for a longer time is more hazardous than heavy smoking for a shorter duration. An explanation for the observed plateau is the difference in inhalation pattern , meaning that if u inhaled less this means less exposure to carcinogens per cigarette and subsequently less damage . (5) Conclusion Scientists are still unclear about the precise pathogenesis of smoking related urinary bladder carcinoma but studies have shown that smoking increases the risk by 6 times and cause about that 50 % of all urinary bladder carcinoma with equal incidence of males and females . Studies shown that angiogenesis plays an important role in increasing the progression of urinary bladder carcinoma by the VEGF which increases the vascular permeability and induce endothelial cell damage. The degree of expression of the VEGF is strongly related to the degree of severity of the urinary bladder carcinoma. A lot of important compounds like Glucuronide conjugates of 4-aminobiphenyl and its N-hydroxy metabolite are hydrolyzed by the acidic urine of the smoker. Recent research showed a strong correlation between the urine ph and current smokers but there is no relation between the urine ph and the former cigarette smoker. A study showed that number of cigarette per day, duration of smoking and smoking index have a very high effect on the risk of urinary bladder carcinoma in current smokers but they have a lesser effect on the risk in the former smokers. On the other hand water pipe smokers have a borderline risk factor for urinary bladder carcinoma. There was no dose-relationship between risk of urothelial carcinoma and number of hagars smoked per day, duration of smoking, or Hagar-year. Longtime smoking is proved to be more dangerous than heavy smoking for shorter time in relation to urinary bladder carcinoma ,the pack per year and the interxity of smoking have reached a plateau in the risk possibly due to the differnce in the inhaltion patterns whereas the duration hasn;t reached a plateau. In case of duration the relationship is pretty simple and obvious, the longer u smoke ,the more likely hood to get cancer, and also justified longer smoking means longer periods of carcinogenic substances to take effect Recommendation for future research Studies has to made to detect the exact pathogenesis of smoking on urinary bladder carcinoma. Also research has to be made to explain the plateau observed in some research References 1) Urinary pH, cigarette smoking and bladder cancer risk 2) Cancer epidemiology ,biomarkers and prevention 3) Cause–effect? Understanding the risk factors associated with bladder cancer 4) Expressional evaluation of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) protein in urinary bladder carcinoma patients exposed to cigarette smoke 5) A Case – Control Study of Smoking and Bladder Cancer Risk: Emergent Patterns Over Time 6) Incidence analyses of bladder cancer in the Nile delta region of Egypt

Recruitment and Retention

Demand for academic staff in Higher Education has been increasing2 and may be expected to continue to increase given the Government’s intention that participation in Higher Education should increase substantially amongst those aged 18 to 30 years old. At the same time, recruitment and retention problems have been growing in prominence (HEFCE, 2003) and there has been a long-standing concern that the sector faces a ‘retirement bulge’, as academics from the 1960s expansion reach retirement.Consequently, there is concern about the adequacy of the future supply of academics. Other substantial changes in Higher Education in the past 10 to 20 years are likely to have contributed to the tightness of the academic labour market3. Polytechnics were granted university status in 1992, changing their funding regime, their focus and the demands on staff. The number of students has grown substantially, a growth which has not been matched by staff increases resulting in a large i ncrease in the student:staff ratio.Changes in funding have led to much greater emphasis on research output (through the Research Assessment Exercise, the RAE), teaching quality (through the requirements of the Quality Assurance Agency, the QAA) and on academics raising research and consultancy funds. Other changes include tighter contractual terms (affecting holidays and hours worked), an increase in the use of short-term and hourly-paid contracts and the loss of tenure. Overall, these changes have tended to alter the nature of the job, reducing autonomy and increasing the workload, including that of administrative and teaching tasks.At the same time, both the salaries and status of academics are perceived to have deteriorated relative to alternative careers (Halsey, 1992; Keep et al. , 1996). Substantial change in the nature of any job is likely to increase turnover, as a mismatch develops between the nature of the job to which people were recruited and the actual job. If these cha nges tend to reduce the quality of the job, rather than just change it, and if the applicant requirements are not altered (and, probably, lowered), recruitment will also become more difficult.Both turnover and recruitment difficulties will be exacerbated by a relative decline in pay. Overview of the study Against this background, the study was designed to identify the factors which lead to individuals entering and leaving academic employment in the English Higher Education sector. Although the main focus was entry and exit from the sector, recruitment to and retention by individual institutions can shed light on this and was also investigated.For the purposes of the study academic employment was defined as jobs in higher education institutions (Universities and Colleges of Higher Education) whose main function was academic teaching or academic research, irrespective of the contractual terms of the job holder. Thus lecturing (e. g. Professors, and Lecturers) and research staff (e. g. Research Assistants, post-docs and Senior Research Fellows) are included, but academic-related staff (e. g. technicians) are not. Full-time, part-time, permanent and temporary staff within these groups are included4.Two main groups of academics were excluded from the study: those in Further Education Institutions and those on clinical rates of pay. The resources of the study precluded inclusion of these two groups5. Following discussion with the DfES, it was decided to focus on staff at English HEIs. This was done in order to prevent differences in the funding and structure of the HE sectors obscuring the analysis. Two exceptions to this rule are the analysis of the HESA data on research students and the chapter on international comparisons of pay (Chapter 4). These are discussed in more detail in sections 1. . 1 and 1. 1. 2 below (and in further detail in Appendix C and Appendix D). The study had five, inter-related, strands: †¢ a literature review to establish the nature of the recruitment and retention problems and to identify previous evidence on the factors affecting recruitment and retention; this was conducted from March to May 2003; †¢ analysis of HESA staff and student data, 2001/02, to provide a descriptive analysis of turnover in academia, to identify the basic characteristics of employment in the sector and to identify the student supply into academia6; a comparative analysis of pay, using 2001 data, both for comparable employment nationally and for academics in Higher Education internationally, in order to establish the competitiveness of academic pay; †¢ qualitative research within universities exploring human resource policies and practices and factors affecting entry and exit from the sector; the fieldwork was conducted between July 2003 and July 2004; 4 However, the coverage of hourly paid staff is severely limited, owing to limitations in the HESA data (see below) and to practical difficulties of sampling for the survey (see b elow). Inclusion of the former would have extended the study to Further Education Institutions. The latter have different terms, conditions and employment patterns from other academics in HEIs and so a larger sample would have been required to adequately cover this group. Staff on clinical rates accounted for five per cent of academic staff (HESA Individualised Staff Record 2001/2). 6 Analysis of more recent HESA data and of trends over time is contained in HEFCE (2005a) and HEFCE (2005b). 3 quantitative surveys of academic staff and of research students to identify factors which affect recruitment into academia and retention; the fieldwork was conducted between May and July 2004. The research findings are affected by the policies and practices in effect at the time. To assist the reader, the DfES has produced a list of relevant Higher Education initiatives since the survey fieldwork. These are listed in Appendix H. Below, essential aspects of the methods are described. Further deta ils of the methods appear in appendices. Appendix A describes the qualitative research.Appendix B discusses the quantitative surveys of academic staff and research students. Appendix C describes the HESA staff and student datasets. Appendix D describes the data used for the intra- and international pay comparisons. Appendix F describes the model used for the analysis of the likelihood of students entering academia. Appendix G describes the econometric analysis of job satisfaction and intentions to leave academia. 1. 1. 1 HESA staff and student data7 For staff, the HESA Individualised Staff Record for the academic year 2001/02 was used.The analysis was confined to institutions in England and to staff who were not on clinical grades. The sole exception to this is chapter 4, where the focus is expanded to the whole of the UK, to maintain consistency with the international comparisons analysis. For the study’s purposes, the Individualised Staff Record data has two important limit ations. Firstly, they exclude employees8 whose total academic employment is below that of 25 per cent of a full-time academic (i. e. those with short hours or with substantial management and administrative responsibilities are excluded)9.One of the implications is that hourly-paid staff will be substantially under-reported and is unlikely to be representative of hourly-paid staff as a whole. Secondly, the data relating to leavers suffer from a high level of nonreporting: around 60 per cent of leavers’ destinations are missing10. Therefore the findings on movement out of the sector must be treated with caution. For students, the Combined Student/Module Record for the academic year 2001/2 was used. This was combined with the First Destination Supplement (FDS), relating to those students who left in 2001/2.The analysis was not limited to students from English higher education institutions because the appropriate pool of domestic entrants into Higher Education academic post is th e whole of the UK. It is important 7 Note that the University of North London was not included in either the staff or student data supplied by HESA because the university has asked that its individual data is not released. 8 Strictly, they exclude contracts whose total academic employment is below that of 25 per cent of a full-time academic, as the record reports contracts rather than individuals.For more information see Appendix C. 9 However, there are staff in the Individualised Staff Record with their FTE recorded as less than 25%; the majority of these records relate to staff who arrived or left during the year. 10 Internal work by HEFCE that matched the 2001-2 survey with that for the following year using staff code, data of birth and sex, found that 20% of those for whom the destination was not known remained at the same institution, 5% were found at a different institution and the remainder could not be matched with a record in the second year.This latter group are made up of those who left the sector and those who remained but whose record in the second year did not match with respect to one of the three criteria. 4 to note that the destination of postgraduate research students in the FDS has a particularly low level of response (38%). Further details are given in Appendix C. 1. 1. 2 The comparative analysis of pay The comparative analysis of pay uses data from national labour force surveys (and censuses in nine countries. These were chosen to illustrate the types of countries to and from which most international movement with UK academia occurs.They include the main English–speaking countries to which UK academics move (the USA and Australia), together with other English-speaking nations (New Zealand and Canada), three European countries (Denmark, France and Sweden) and Japan. The analysis of the labour force survey data used in the international comparisons used data from the whole of the UK. This was to increase the sample size. However, we w ould not expect to find significant differences within the UK. Identifying higher education academics was done using information on occupation and industry where available.In most countries we were able to obtain a sample group that matched the UK sample. Exceptions to this were the US, where the sample also included academic staff at state colleges, who also conduct teaching undertaken in the FE sector in the UK, and Australia and New Zealand, where it is possible that our sample excludes some researchers who have no teaching responsibilities. We discuss the implications of this in Chapter 4 and Appendix D. Comparisons were made in both nominal and real terms. Earnings were converted using exchange rates to make nominal comparisons.In order to account for differences in the cost of living, purchasing power parity exchange rates developed by the OECD were used to make real earnings comparisons. Further details are given in Appendix D. 1. 1. 3 The qualitative and quantitative survey research Qualitative research was conducted in thirteen English universities and quantitative research conducted in a subset of these. A structured sample of universities was selected to ensure coverage of different types of universities (new, old and colleges of Higher Education), universities in London and elsewhere and universities with differing research ratings.Institutions with fewer than 200 academic staff and most specialist institutions11 were excluded. Small institutions were excluded because economies of scale in setting up the quantitative survey meant that their inclusion would have led to a smaller survey, as the project resources could not increase the sample through an increased number of institutions. Specialist institutions were excluded for similar reasons. (This did not reduce the subject coverage, as subjects taught in specialist institutions are also found in other HEIs. The purpose of the qualitative research was to identify factors which might affect recruitm ent and retention, including human resource practices and staff preferences. Qualitative interviews were held with senior staff with responsibility for 11 ‘Specialist institution’ is a classification developed for funding purposes and refers to institutions where 60 percent or more of funding is allocated to one or two cost centres. 5 human resourcing and, in eight of the universities, interviews were conducted with heads of two departments, and a sample of their academic staff and research students.A survey of academic staff was conducted in ten12 of these universities. The survey covered both research and lecturing staff. Full-and part-time staff were included, but hourly paid staff were excluded (see Appendix B). The questionnaire collected data on personal characteristics, employment history, views on aspects of the job and career intentions. The survey was web-based. A total of 2805 staff responded, a response rate of 32 per cent. Survey data have been re-weighted to be representative of university academic staff in English HEIs.For more information on the weighting and other issues relating to the staff survey see section B. 1 of Appendix B. A survey of research students (full-time and part-time) was conducted in nine of the universities, where research students were those undertaking a Masters degree mainly by research or a doctorate. The questionnaire collected data on personal characteristics, employment history and career intentions. The survey was web-based. A total of 1330 research students responded, a response rate of 29 per cent. Survey data have been re-weighted to be representative of research students in English HEIs.For more information on the weighting and other issues relating to the staff survey see Section B. 7. Further details are given in Appendix B. 1. 2 Nomenclature Throughout this report the following nomenclature is used: †¢ Student when referring to the student survey refers to research student. †¢ ‘Ac ademic’, ‘academic staff’ refers to those employed in higher education institutions on either the research grade or the lecturing grade. †¢ University is used to refer to all higher education institutions, whether a university or a college. New and old universities. New13 universities are those that received university status in 1992 (when polytechnics and many colleges of Higher Education converted to university status) or later; old universities are those which had university status before this date. 1. 3 Report layout The structure of the report is as follows. The next chapter sets the scene by presenting evidence on turnover and recruitment and retention problems in higher 12 The aim had been to survey staff and students in twelve universities.Unfortunately, not all the universities were able to supply the sample, either due to data protection considerations or due to difficulties providing an email contact list. 13 This nomenclature is in common use now , but, previously, ‘new university’ was used to denote universities established in the 1960s and early 1970s. Perhaps the term was also used in the nineteenth century to refer to the redbrick universities when the sector was expanded in the Victorian era. 6 education. It also presents evidence on the factors affecting recruitment and retention of academics.Chapter 3 then describes the structure of academic employment in Higher Education, including the grade structure and contractual status, and the main characteristics of academic staff. This description is used to raise some of the factors which might affect recruitment and retention. Chapter 4 continues with the theme of structure, focusing on pay, and examines relative pay to investigate whether pay differences may be a cause of recruitment and retention difficulties. Both domestic and international comparisons are made.

Whispered Scholarship Application Essay Samples Secrets

Whispered Scholarship Application Essay Samples Secrets The New Fuss About Scholarship Application Essay Samples A sample is offered below for the better knowledge of students. Therefore, students will need to pay attention in regards to formatting their scholarship essays. Many students don't keep the coherency in the content. Though they can write well, not many applicants put in the effort to do so. It's important that you know how to write a scholarship essay so you can produce your case and convince the judges that you're the ideal person for the award. This letter could be simple but it can supply a lot of difference with regards the decision on whether someone is going to be qualified for a scholarship grant or not. There's nobody way to compose a winning scholarship application. If you've already graduated from college or university and are looking for a superior job, you want to get a persuasive resume to impress your future employer. It is thought to be absolutely the most significant part your application, since the scholarship committee will use this to assess who you are as an individual, and your outlook in life. Every student demands help with homework from time to time. A scholarship essayis part of ascholarship application. It is essential that you start early if you're planning to submit an application for academic college scholarships. A fundamental tool you may use is the T.. The general format of your essay, for example, font size and margins, will solely count on the instructions provided to you. A scholarship application template provides many advantages. If you're using mobile phone, you may also utilize menu drawer from browser. The Good, the Bad and Scholarship Application Essay Samples Evaluators mainly assess an essay based on the way the theme was managed. Be certain that the subject of your essay clearly addresses the topic provided on the program, and use sources if needed. Without understanding the significance of the crucial themes, it is not possible to compose an impeccable essay. The ending of the essay should restate the major theme. An essay has a specific structure. It is often the most important part of your application. Don't forget that the individual reading your essay will have a say in whether you receive a scholarship. Don't forget to begin your essay strongit should be able to spark the interests of your readers. You don't need to possess the ideal writing skills to be able to be creative and compose an effective essay. These forms of essays are guaranteed to doze off your readers. An excellent essay is one which leaves an enduring impression. While you cannot predict every essay question, knowing some of the most typical ones may give you an advantage on applications. To begin with, it's required to mention all the problems. In the event the topic isn't given such examples permit students to comprehend what the contemporary academic world is interested in and how to stick out from the rest. Following that, it's recommended to perform a thriving research on the theme for acquiring in-depth understanding. It's the way the essay looks. Essays are often needed for scholarship applications. There are various letter documents and essay examples that are employed in the area of education. Find out what exactly onomatopoeia is and the way to use it. If you're planning to submit an application for a college scholarship you will likely will need to submit an essay alongside a resume transcript and other background informationlooking at a number of sample essays before you commence writing will be able to help you get inspired to craft a winning essay of your own.

Should Abortion Be Legal - 3167 Words

Introduction One of the most highly controversial ‘right’ taking place in the United States of America today is abortion. Abortion is the deliberate termination of a human pregnancy, most often performed during the first 28 weeks of pregnancy (oxford). Abortion is one of those issues which polarises ones opinion. It is something which many people have strong feelings for or against and in some cases, this has resulted in protest and violence. In the United States alone there are roughly about 1.2 million abortions are performed yearly, that’s about 3 out of 10 women (Trupin). Abortion is one of the most common medical procedures. The reason why abortion is so highly controversial is because some see it as murder and some see the fetus as just a clump of cells. Since 1973 abortion was made legal by the US Supreme Court, making it one of the most controversial, visible, and legally active areas in the field of medicine (Trupin). Many Laws have been passed or proposed due to abortion, parental consent is one of the most debated topics, for a daughter younger than 18 years. Teenagers don’t want to be seen as irresponsible to their parents. Only about 45% of teenagers do involve their parents in their decision. (Trupin) Also if abortion was illegal should the rules be different in cases of sexual assault and rape? In the 19th century before abortion was made legal, most US states had no abortion laws. Women were free to end pregnancy with the assistance of any medicalShow MoreRelatedAbortion Should Not Be Legal1647 Words   |  7 PagesOne of the most highly debated topics is abortion and whether or not it should be legal. People who oppose abortion, meaning they are pro-life claim that abortion should be completely illegal with no aspe cts of it whatsoever; it can be a murder for the people standing against it. The other side of the argument, meaning people who are pro-choice, defend it by believing it to be a right been given to the women. They also claim even if abortion was to be illegal, it would still be practiced. EveryRead MoreAbortion Should Not Be Legal920 Words   |  4 Pagesworld has struggled with for ages and one thing that people are advocating around the world for is abortion. Abortion is either a procedure or pill that stops a fetus s heart. Abortion should not be legal because life beings at creation, abortions are a direct violation of the 14th amendment, and thousands of people would love to adopt a child: handicapped or otherwise. Abortion should not be legal because life begins at creation. What is creation? Some people say conception, but it actually isRead MoreShould Abortion Be Legal?1320 Words   |  6 PagesAbortion, as you all may know, is a really popular topic. There have long been many debates between the two groups, pro-life and pro-choice. People who are pro-life believe that part of the government’s job is to protect all forms of human life. Those who are pro-choice believe that every individual should have control over their own reproductive systems. Pro-life supporters strongly believe that even an undeveloped fetus has life; it is still growing and it needs to be protected. And this soundsRead MoreShould Abortion Be Legal?1217 Words   |  5 PagesNovember 2015 Should Abortion be Legal Among all the issues that have been fought for or against in the United States, abortion may be one of the most popular issues that Americans are passionate about. Abortion is defined as the removal of the embryo or fetus from the uterus in order to end a pregnancy. Thousands of abortions take place every single day, and yet public opinion remains at a standstill as to whether or not abortion is ethical. Everyone holds different opinions on abortion. The proponentsRead MoreAbortion Should Not Be Legal Essay1596 Words   |  7 Pages Abortions have been performed on women for thousands of years. Abortion is the deliberate termination of a human pregnancy. Most often it is performed during the first 20 weeks of being pregnant. The controversy over whether or not abortion should be legal continues to divide Americans till this day. An important landmark case was the Roe v. Wade case, where the Court argued that the zone of privacy was broad enough to encompass a woman s decision whether or not to terminateRead MoreShould Abortion Be Legal? Essay1089 Words   |  5 PagesWhen the word abortion is heard, it is always associated with many negative things such as murder and inhumanity. However not legalizing abortion creates a huge problem for women around the world. Having a child takes consideration, planning and preparation and if pregnancy happens without any of this, why bother to have it at all? 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There have been a lot of disagreements between the Pro-life supporters and the pro-choice supporters. Pro-life supporters feel like abortions deter murder, while pro-choice supporters believe that the women should be able to make their own decisions. I am a part of the pro-life supporters because I feel like abortions are wrong for several of reasons. Why should women get an abortion if there are other choices for